The only direct evidence we have that they weren’t union at this point is the reports of Ben Davis’s claims during negotiation. Certainly the armed continuation of a strike the union had given up on wasn’t union sanctioned.

But were those taking action on their own also union members?

We don’t have local union rolls from the time period, but given surrounding evidence, they likely were not members–yet. However many of these Italian miners would go on to join the UMW and be elected as local leaders. A handful of years later, Giacomo (Italian for James), was identified by the mine superintendent as the president of the UMW local.

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